MSW Book recommendation #35

”For the romantics, mountains, clouds, the sea, thunder and lightning, forests and wild animals had all, like islands, had become objects of idealisation and preoccupation, representing elements in the human condition threatened or alienated by the increasingly complex pressures on the individual imposed by European society. In their discourses a very firm differentation became established between the European urban world and the 'other' of the tropical world, integral to which was the adoption of a whole new series of natural symbols or preoccupations. But the most important of these was the island. The direct influence of Defoe in effecting this kind of transition, particularly through Rousseau and his disciple Bernardin de Sainte-Pierre, should not be underestimated. 
[…] However, in transferring the concept of either social or natural Utopia to Mauritius there were glaring differences to be tackled. Far from being a Utopia, the colony was a slave state of 18,000 blacks and 2,000 Europeans.” ^1.

”Human misery always increases in the same degree as men are dependant.” - Bernardin de Sainte-Pierre^2.

Paul and Virginie
by Sainte-Pierre, Bernardin de [Jacques-Henri]
p. 1804 

(..likely novel was published by earlier timing on French ; 1790s?)

[Recommendation I / 2013]

...From this (fiction) book selected for this sequel on our series, little explanations are presented on begins. Why/how I came to select just this particular novel wasn't too much forethought decicion, while it now feels for the most logical and good choice to represent at these recoms.

(The) original intention on (this) recom was to select book by (some) N.American author from 1800s, for to represent some alternative for the several European writers of that century we've already presented here. However, none very proper example seemed to  surface for my liking. So, I then viewed that (probably quite a lot read, 1990s) essay by Toni Morrison; Playing in the dark. Whiteness and the literary imagination, as some guidance to this topic. Morrison writes on that, ao, about the 'characterization' of americanized/africanized personnels at the texts from 19^th and 20^th centurian american literature. So there's references for books of many recognized/famous authors, like fx Herman Melville [1819-91], Nathaniel Hawthorne [1804-1864], etc. From Hawthorne's books I then first happened read some collections of the ghost/horror-stories (didn't find interest to those). Then I also paged Melville's Typee (A peep in the Polynesian life, p. 1842, ?), and it seemed like a good selection for consideration – but - then I yet opinioned there already having been (somewhat) these Polynesian tales on our former Stevenson recom. (Melville's Moby Dick (p. 1851, ?) would also have made a good candidate though for it certainly belongs for some of my favorite readings.)

...Yet, not very satisfied for any of the above mentioned (and, as I was also at the time reading this book by Grove from the early emergence of the ”island environmentalism”), my choice was finally 'settled' on this famous 'blockbuster' of the romantic fiction, by 18^th century french author Bernardin de Sainte-Pierre. In short, Paul and Virginie seems remembered as the book which probably (quite influensively) Rousseau's [Jean-Jaques, 1712-78] views and ideas to the home education of upper/middle-class children (...along w. the writings of Rousseau, of course. Also seems it said been widely read at GB and on much of the other North European countries at it's own times). Nowadays, I guess, the book survives as bit less appreciated 'cultural landmark' than those somewhat more 'educative' writings of Rousseau (fx, Emile, 1762 and La Nouvelle Héloise, p. 1761). But the book's always been popular, some minor classic at least.

The author.

Sainte-Pierre (1737-1814) was on his own times very renown writer (and adventurer), if not quite comparable a figure to some nowadays far better remembered (fiction) authors, like fx Balzac or Dumas. However, the fame of the Sainte-Pierre rests mostly on this particular piece of fiction. It's an emotionally 'fueled' romantic story, situated at the island on the tropics (Mauritius in this case, known by name/described in the book as the 'Isle de France', for the place was French colony around the time books been written). 
 

Sainte-Pierre was considered, in his own times, also for some personnel of naturalist authority. Fx, from 1792 onwards he held the title of the superindendent on Jardin des Plantes, the royal botanical garden on Paris (following on that post Comte de Buffon [1707-1788], who was the first beholder of that title.) The opinions about how 'merited' scientific esteem of Sainte-Pierre should have been held maybe varied³., but, anyhow due from recognized as widely renown figure and author, Sainte-Pierre was elected for the mentioned post on his older days. (The time of revolution is said at first turned for his disfavor, at least temporarily him losing that position...but anyhow, seems managed have survive that period, differing from many of his contemporary intellectuels.). 

 

Along with some now (mosly) forgotten fiction (The Indian cottage, perhaps best renown of his other fiction), Sainte-Pierre seems also have written various naturalist books, fx Etudes ('Studies of Nature', 1796) and the Voyage to the isle of France, the latter being travel-story from his time of stay at the island.; Actually, seems it also that he originally had planed only for brief stay at Mauritius, and then continue to Madagascar – for to experiment there with his ideas about establishing some ”freemen state” (or, smtgh like antiroyalistic, democratically maintained economy/colony); but, after having found about his travel-companions (in contrast) aims from to participating at the slave trades instead, he left off the ship for remain Mauritius to somewhat longer stay (at least acc. the histories of this, although I've not fx read his memoir about the journey). 
 

Like noted, Sainte-Pierre also was proponent of thinking, or the ideas, first presented by Rousseau. ; ...Although, how much they had actual exchange of ideas between each other seems always been of slight uncertainty/matter of opinion. Even before that he was already lot influenced by Rousseau's ideas; There's on this book fx descriptions favorable to/ views pro the unaltered Natures (vs man-modified landscapes); Likewise there's (hints of) the early democratic ideals on some parts of the novel, and, also about (Sainte-Pierre's) opposition for slavery. Main theme - basically put – is from general belief about modern society's depravating effect for the individual. And, some admirations towards the simpler 'savage life' (or, for 'natural education') are presented in comparison. Of course, Rousseau's theories were much on the backgrounds for various many romantic authors and their texts (...and, during the French revolution Rousseau's actually mentioned of been the most widely favored philosopher, his portraits fx were carried around by the revolting crowds.)

'The Island'.

Before the French arrived for, or gained control from the island (of Mauritius) around early from 1700s, place belonged before that to the Dutch imperial colonies. Around early 1800s island's ownership moved for the British⁴. Prior 1700s, the earlier colonizers (Dutch,  and neither the Portuguese, actually the first European sailors arriving and first to 'alter' the islands original ecology more significantly) - had not based any (larger) permanent settlements. However, for sure already during the Dutch ownership there was heavy uses from the islands timber sources⁵ (as those also were used for the needs of their colony at the Cape). Viewed from purely of it's ecological consequences, the European imperialistic expansion to those many Oceanic pelagics, (Mauritius, ao) lead for serious disturbance and conversion from the ecologys at those 'Lost paradises'. (Actually St. Helena island(s) and also fx Madeira, latter mentioned situating also on Atlantic Ocean, are often noticed main examples from the more severe and permanent destruction for the original island ecology. No doubt, the sugarcane cultivations, which was begun/spread for many tropical pelagics, largely affected on that.) 
 

Much as presented in the view of the (paragraphs) quoted on begins of this recom, the view about these isles as some 'Edenic gardens' made tropics also a important source in the romantic imagination (This also originated from various paradise myths et similar. There's fx similar imaginery paradises been thought from exist at many places elsewhere around the Globe, at the middle from Arctic/Antarctica, in the Center from Earth, Shangri-La, Atlantis, etc...) Yet, the tropical island (as  some paradise utopia) had the downsides, by some part. Still around the 1700s/1800s (and perhaps later) it was also (widely) believed that the tropical suns might turn for unfavourable blessing to the Europeans. It was fx (quite) general belief among Europeans, that tropical heats, might affect for their their biological traits (fx it was believed that the skin color could darken in few generations, still presented as a belief at the Buffons natural histories, et similar. That also was accompanied with fears from the degeneration of the race, resultatively. None of this kind of views perhaps played part at any everyday life/tasks, but them were, likely, considered as possibilities, still.) This, along the resembling racial prejudices⁶, had a longer history from beliefs at it's backgrounds. For those also belonged fx some actual reasons, fx fears of the tropical diseases, as the colonizers unaccostumed to those climates, were known for more vulnerable to. (Also the Europeans naturally were more vulnerable for the exposure to tropical heat than the native inhabitants.) 

 

...So many fictional stories also often presented/expressed the theme from tropics as (some kind of) challenge to the colonizers. It seems said of been typical on various cultural works on those past centuries; Along with the Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, Shakespeare's Tempest (1611) seems mentioned for the most renown example. (Prospero's island actually situates on some unknown place at the Mediterranean, but often via/because from it's context the play seems been interpreted for obvious symbol for the 'New World'. It's plot also contains fx incidents relating for the survival at tropical island, and, (fx acc. Grove) at the play ”...even social debates are overshadowed by the physical predicament and the dangers involved in surviving on alien land.”, ...the mentioned comprising fx from drought, disease and the native peoples.) These of course are some from most renown or widely read literatures, most other usual travel-tales and fictional writings appeared merely as descriptive narratives. 
 

Ecologically (/of ecological consequences), Mauritius's is perhaps best renown from because of the Dodo, that famous extinct flightless bird, later been seen as (/brought for, sort of) early symbol about the mans destructive effect towards the Natures. Dodo (Raphus cucullatus), bird relative to species of pigeon, disappeared already at the 1600s (usually assumed timing seems place that around 1680s). Relative soon after it's fate also become more widely popularized - Not the least due because of Buffon's book about the tropical birds.

However, reader of the ecological history soon learns that Dodo only marks some 'tip of an iceberg'. In fact – even if it's extinction happened quite rapidly – only foreshadows the larger ecological side-effects/consequences of that expansion of the European imperialism to many (mostly not formerly inhabited) Ocean pelagics. (At the Mauritius's endemic birds there's likely several comparable examples, but I've not viewed that more specifically from any conservation literature/histories.) More generally, or as usual in case of the various pelagics, on Mauritius several human introduced species were brought by the earliest settlers, and also (probably) some might've arrived via from shipwrecks as the accidental passer-bys - Sainte-pierre actually seems describe in the novel some of island's coastal regions been filled with variety of wrecks from the ships. The list from (usual) invasive species contains the goats, dogs, rats, pigs, javanese deer, fx. ...Also, some endemic species seem (probably) gone to oblivion - due of the introduced, 'semi-domestic' animals - even before them were been described/recognized (and now appear only known from fossilous remains).

Yet, perhaps of that ecological disturbance the extinction of the large land tortoises is most descriptive. (Probably) it's not known too well when the endemic tortoises from island might've became disappeared, probably around mid 1600s already⁷(Tortoise-meat, or 'Mutton' like it was popularly known, was used as 'food-storages' on sailing ships. As the Mauritius was on popular transport (trade-) routes, the practice from taking them to foodstock on ships was common ...as long as there was something to catch. That might feel been somewhat detestable or disgusting practices, from our modern times view-points (As the tortoises were kept alive on ships but not feeded, the reptiles low-metabolic rate keeping them alive and unspoilt...until them were slaughtered sometime along journeys). But, at that time voyages on ships also were time-consuming and lack of food commonly threatened in case it was fx erred to sail off the course. In brief ; As long as it would have been on sustained level - what that of course never was, the tortoises being slow-breeding species - any modern uses of catching wild animal species for commercial purposes, to  foods, pets, whatsover, doesn't make much less detestable practices.

From w. the early 1700s also various side-effects from that more permanent habitation were becoming noticable. At many tropical isles sugar-cane farming had been started along with regular farming practices. Basically each new practice brought the further earlier deforestation, and the 'God given Eden' was ever more ecologically nourished. However (like quite extensively described at Grove's book) the botanical gardening (practices) also had been started from quite early, already since the Dutch occupation of island. That also from rather had postive aspects, fx some forest protection purposes. It's also said that the network of the botanical gardens established by the Dutch  then later benefited the efforts of French and British naturalists at those Ocean pelagics. Also some conservationist practices were fx sometimes more effectively regulated along with the observations/increased knowledge about the vulnerability of tropical soils and the forest loss. At first, however, fx the cultivation/building of botanical gardens grew along with the maintained orchards et similar, the actual original 'gimmick' been collecting the rarities, not from any actual conservationist ideas. (Much in the way than fx at that famous story from Captain Cooks journey to Tahiti, the early motivation was from the competition at gathering and acquiring the exotic plants, spices, ao.) 
 

In time the early 'naturalists' ideas lead also for some new climatic knowledge and exchange of those ideas permitted some development of the early conservationist ideas, (occasionally) even resulted for (some) forest protection acts. Notwithstanding that, mostly the maintained regulations for to limit forest destruction at tropical isles araised of the practical purposes, fx usually forest conservation was argumented from that it was important guarantee timber supply to increasing imperial needs of shipbuilding in the future (...so it's fx mentioned that during naval wars of the 1740s the forest destruction at island increased significantly.)

 

(Like also noted above) as there wasn't any actually modern (/established) conservationist practices during those (colonial) times and any environmentalistic practices (at Mauritius as well as elsewhere) had to be argumented by other reasons. At the development from the earliest real restrictions to forest clearance on Mauritius, (acc. Grove) the essential personnel were commissaire-intendent Pierre Poivre (1719-86), Philippe Commerson (-1773), and Bernardin De Sainte-Pierre (...during the time from his stay there). As Mauritius was some remote island, ”in the middle of nowhere” of Indian Ocean, the 'Ancien regime' - ie political and social system of France before the revolution of 1789' - was also somewhat more relaxed on those conditions. For some preceded influence, at least for Poivre – most influential for that early emerged conservationism – were also the 1700s economic theories by physiocrats⁸. The timing when the early ecological ideas originated/were put on practice (at Mauritius) seems said been around the late 1760 to 1770s. (; Also, it's perhaps possible notice that the times from (ca) 1780-1815 are usually described seen quite much liberalization from ideas and views; And, there was various important historical happenings, fx the French revolution 1789, the Haitian independence/slave revolt leading to that (on 1792-1804), some S.American colonies bacoming indepedent, emergence of the romanticism at arts and on the Deutch philosophy, etc ..And, also these described early beginnings, or early birth of the 'modern environmentalism'.) 
 

Seems it also said, that the impact was at first (relative) limited, even though some of the forest protection policies (et similar) are said remained on uses after the British had annexed island at the turn of 1800s. But, the deforestation then also further spread to the inner parts of the island during some followed decades. In spite of that seems it say that early environmentalism probably prevented larger destruction from taking places (; Fx, there was more severe ecological disturbance as consequencess on some other tropical colonies⁹.)

(...Probably much else would be possible to combine of these thing, but, as my knowledge is mostly on basis of this singular book of the 'empirial environmentalism' on tropical colonies (isles), the preceded paragraph(s) meant comprise some brief abbreviations of that part. There's lot interesting parallels on that to be seen w. the present day; (Fx), if wish compare that for any modern discussions about global deforestation...There's (easily) noticeable similarities: Fx that purpose from acquisition of the 'luxurious goods' driving the deforestation, or, also in the gradual enlargement of the plantations. And, also in that the main conservation policies usually had to be argumented/necessited by the view-point of the economic reasons: Ie, in that the failing to put the conservative efforts on effect would - as the logical outcome - would in time have lead in the scarcity from timber resources, economic losses, etc. (; And, there's of course lots more about all that in this singular book we've here referred, occasionally but often. The early emergence of understanding from the effects of tropical deforestation for the tropical islands climates/precipitation, actually makes the main themes on that book.)

The novel.

This romantic fiction presented (on this novel by Sainte-Pierre) appears tied, at least loosely, for the actual historical timing and details. In the early part of the book narrator mentions from incidents at 1738, said to situate on time three years after arrival of Monsier de la Bourdonnais for governor on colony of Mauritius (Isle de France). Bourdonnais (/or, Labourdonnais) was indeed an actual historical person and appears on story's characters too (...Also, it's perhaps interesting mention that on Grove seems it say the followed decade having seen the increase from escalating forests/lands uses at the island.) However, like was also mentioned on the above discussed, already Dutch colonial period had brought various disruptions to the island's original/'pristine' ecology. Also, Sainte-Pierre wasn't even first observer to pay attention on extinctions¹⁰ of some from the endemic species at island ...or, elsewhere from tropical pelagics. 
 

Romantic plot in the novel is of course in the main central theme. Any 'glimpses' from the surrounding Nature, and 'the landscape appreciations', offer just certain frames for that. Nature, or the views concerning it's nourishment appear presented (mostly) as (minor) themes within plot. The natural environment, more or less, is still present throughout the book, even as subordinate for the social romantique. Book also is filled with much sensualism and exaggerated tones, melodramatization of feelings (strenuosly so, sometimes) all those typical for the romantic fiction. Yet, there's fx some more philosophical parts told via the books 'secondary narrator' ...Actually, those comptemplations are among the best sequels of it, containing also some social critique.) The 'secondary narrator' is a character from an older personnel living at island, who actually tells the story about Paul and Virginie for the book's 'real' narrator; The reader can't possibly avoid from thinking that figure as the alter ego for author himself, Sainte-Pierre...albeit that is not necessary, though. (Feels it yet, somehow, also quite modern narrational solution on an old novel like this.)

Romanticism is usually considered a literature period/time when the lyric flourished, but (also my opinion) novels often (not always though) represent rather boring reads. In comparison - and for the books merit - it seems avoids most caveats of that kind. Story is quite good, and it has compact plot. From the characters most obvious is, perhaps, how 'shallow' them appear in comparison for some later (19^th centurian) realistic fiction books. But they are still (quite) multisided group in overall, not just some gallery of characterizations. It could be also noted that this 'native pastoral' takes place within the limits of European societal practices of that time, and not really goes too far on challenging those. So, fx the slave-servants (/or freed slaves, described in the novel from have gained their freedom) in servitude of the main characters families could also be described for some stereotypes of the 'africanised personnels' (to loan that term used by Morrison). Them not actually are developed as any active characters on the novel. Most of that direct social critique is presented in form of the 'Rousseauism', whose main ideas (/ideals) are embed everywhere for the story.

(...”Psychopathologically” could also, perhaps, be argumented that the story about these love childs in their paradisian environments is from 'going Natures' and not 'going native' - and the psychologic interpretations of the novels thematics likely emphasizing also aspects of them lacking some dominant patriarchal figure/father in the 'natural romantic' love story; The both kids in the story are raised by their mothers. In that sense, it could interpret for some 'social revolutionarism'-story mostly (and not the romantic pastoral, from the main theme); But, as the psychology was invented only about century later than this novel written, I think the interpretation sounds just some...psychologizing.)

Like said, makes it still quite a fascinating story. It's also perhaps very logical that the main height of the story-plot is tied for those mentioned wreckages on the shoresides of island. (Like proper from the romantic fiction, whole story also begins from admiring views of those and seascapes). Much of the book's popularity on 1800s (and afterwards) was probably due from that powerful emotional languages and that the tension on the novel is tied for the themes of social critique (/and Rousseaun themes). But it's a skillfully written story too, and has probably lasted so well past the centuries just due because it reaches – on some parts at least – also surprisingly realistic tones. At some parts.


Finally, I just notice it also having quite much resemblance w. the modern romantic TV-fiction (...w. similar environments, dramatizations etc. Only that, it's far better and less overwhelmed than any 'cheap entertative'. Basically, most usual tv-romantique even today lot borrows from classics of it's kind. Only that, on those tv-series it is not aimed for similarly emotional authenthism, from any level.) Also remember those references earlier in this text about the origins of that (falsified) image from the tropical isles/environments as some 'lost paradises'...falsified in the sense that it lacks pay any respects for that the disappearance of that ecology is simultaneous within it's imagined (/sensualized?) occupations. (;W-G.)

-------------

Notes:

1. Grove, Green Imperialism. Colonial expansion, tropical island Edens and the origins of Environmentalism 1600-1860 (p. 1994 ; p. 235; 243)

2. (from) Voyage to the Isle of France, the Isle of Bourbon and the Cape of Good Hope with observations and reflections upon Nature and Mankind. [...The English transl. is from 1800, but text seems mentioned written during the time of the 'old regime', at the 1770s. However, quoted sentence originates from 1768 letter at begins of the book, written shortly after his arrival to island; He compares the French peasants for the (situation) of the slaves on colonies at that. Isle of Bourbon is the earlier name for Réunion (-island).]

3. ...Fx, Theory of Tidens (1795) about the high/low tides on Oceans, assumed (that phenomenom) to result from changes on the polar ice(-sheets), but the view was commonly seen as erraneous (; Not many, or the major part from naturalists even on his own times believed for that for any valid explanation. ; The assumption that the tides were caused by Moon-Earth (-gravitational fields) was already presented on that time (...fx, Kepler had believed so already for than a century and half earlier...but I've not any general idea from how commonly this was known prior the Newtonian law(s) of gravitation).

4. Ie, the French ownership on the island having lasted from between years 1716 to 1791. (...Seems it also mentioned the Arabs already prior that possibly might have had some limited uses of the island and it's forests. Also, it's as well assumed the pirates (possibly) might've used place as the base during on the earliest phases from the Indian Ocean trade, meaning therefore sometime prior/around the year 1500 (; Grove, p 129-130). For some comparison (of the long-term human effects on island ecology) it is perhaps noticeable that on the Galapagos(-islands), also heavily disturbed from the original ecology, earliest permanent settlement are said have begun just since from 1830s.

5. There's actually little mention of that deforestation in the novel.; However, there's that famous chapter where Paul establishes fruit garden to the nearby forest on island, and cultivates it 'not too far from the designs of Nature.' ...On basis of those paragraphs feels it difficult guess which from the tree (-species) belong to the original tree-cover (species natively growing there), and which represent the planted/cultivated some. Anyway, many (of the following) seem represent species which naturally do grow at equatorial range; fx ”lemon, orange and tamarind trees”, also (he's on that described to sow) ”Agathis, ...Persian lilac, ...and pappaw tree(s)”, and, also seed and kernels (of) ”gum tree ... mango, alligator pear, guava, the bread-fruit tree” (were) '...planted by him with profusion'.;

...The island's lowland tree cover is said (from have, by earliest) become under larger deforestation since from the early 1600s, major/most harvest (probably) was for the Ebony (Diospyro-spec.), durable and valued 'hardwood' even today;  Artefacts of it were commonly manufactured at the time. Possibly (some /lot) of local genera from islands Ebony was completely levelled and disappeared due that, albeit I've not viewed from that of anymore specifically. ...Anyhow, in the modern tropical deforestation Ebony is listed for the most significantly threatened tropical trees/timber; the illegal loggings having made it scarce on the nearby Madagascar and at continental areas.)

6. ...Reader who'd wish think these topics as somehow separate histories, maybe (might) feel disturbed that we at this refer for those racial views without particularly /more precisely discussing that. Lenghty historical past of the slave-market is quite common knowledge, however commonity of the racism and racial attitudes at the European colonialistic pasts is surprisingly less generally recognized (...aspect). These (racism/slave trades, fx) weren't exceptionally or solely European practices, of course. But, along the colonialistic expansion, both 'practices' necessarily emerged for to have inseparable and influential role at the global worldhistory (...various contemporary researches also have traced the origins and roots from that at many studies). ; Anyway, fx on a large part from the 19^th century writing (...of fiction, science-, politics, etc) racistic terminology and views appear generally so common that people often seem just routinely bypass those views, as some typicalities of the past times. - Actually I've sometimes felt that encountering an old 1800s book of natural history lacking some 'categorizations' concerning races, or expressing some 'race-theories' makes it rather unconventional example. (More usual and renown are perhaps those educative openly racistic images on old old school books, that persisted for somewhat more recent eras, at least until early from 20^st century.) Often it's even so that the more 'educated' 19th centurian writer one may read, the more self-evident seems that usage of from racistic hierarchies. (...Fx I remember how embarrassed I felt when reading those very enthusiastic and interesting descriptions about tropical natures by Wallace [Arthur Russell, 1823-1913; ...his book presented earlier on these recoms] ...along with the quite common and seemingly self-evident usage from term 'lower races'.)  At fiction similar racial views and terms are often somewhat less explicitly used, perhaps, albeit examples of the opposite kind aren't rare at all, either. If vieving - w. that as some 'criteria' - fx Melville's Typee, or this recommended book by Sainte-Pierre, both would show from their author's to quite unprejudiced compared towards some standards of their times. Not any singular example can be generalized neither, of course. 

This becomes even more apparent from noticing that 'race', as any meaningful scientific term is generally abandoned, nowadays. But it was held as firm scientific category, and for that also a valid term, by the most 18^th or 19^th centurian thinkers. So, on cases one fx might notice how many advocates of 'newly' emerged social ideas - favoring anti-slavery or the democratic opinions, fx – might yet have held race as the usable category and rarely, if ever, actually been questioning it's meaningfulness as the biological, or cultural category.  (A very short view) from the history of the term /'terming' race as some hierarchially used category, seems show it having become established in the early naturalism already well before 19^th century. Buffon (already at the 18^th century) did present the hierarchised view of the races on his Natural histories (;'Histoire Naturelle, Générale et Particulière', btw 1749-88. - Albeit, seems it also said he not constructed it for any biological category, believing at the common origin of all races; And, not prior the emergence of Darwin's evolutionary theory - which Buffon actually anticipated on his times - did 'race' become used/believed from to have any similar uses as the biological category, like was the case postward that, and the (so called) scientific racism.) ; In spite of that, also fx Linné's [Carolus von, 1701-78] famous system of scientific nomenclature contained the linear constructions to the Natures classification, and, represented the (human) races via similarly 'linear hierarchies'; Also, Lamarck's [Jean Baptiste, 1744-1829; L. was Buffon's pupil.] theories about inheritance of the acquired traits explained the species (and races) -relations via from the increasing complexity from the 'higher' towards the 'less complex'. (Also believing that the changes on the species took place via slow environmental adaptations at the following generations, Lamarck - unlike Darwin - fx, didn't believe in the shared ancestry of all living species. His view generally was proven false and abandoned within evolutionary theory, but it did influence (along several other views having preceded) Darwin when he was combining his evolutionary theory, too. (Later on lamarckism remained somewhat influential, and misapprehensed it had effect on the early 20^th century nazi-theories, fx.) ...Or, about so and howsoever of more precisely...

7. Grove (; p. 146; 150.) Later on, perhaps around the y. 1700s some regulations for limiting that hunt were put on effect.  Couldn't prevent the disappearance (of larger species from the turtles.) ...(Acc. Grove) there seems also later been some efforts for to translocate tortoises from Seychelles to Mauritius around 1740s. But, until 1790s that 'stock' had also become extirpated. (On Seychelles, to the contrary, the endemic population from land tortoises didn't die out – and that seems said leaving the Aldabra's giant Tortoise as a sole (larger) land turtle species surviving on the Indian Ocean pegagics. Largely this is said due from because the last mentioned place was remote enough from usual ship-routes. At Galapagos-islands the happenigs went quite similarly, although there still remains number of extant species, too.)

 8. Physiocrat (Acc. Websters, 1994) is ”One of social school of political economists who follow Quesnay [Francois, 1694-1774] in holding that an inherent natural order properly governs society, regarding land as the basis of wealth and taxation, and advocating a laissez-faire economy.” - Seems it is also that main difference to modern (economic) views was that Physiocrats considered only agricultural labor valuable, the production (and sales) of the goods weren't considered to add for national income. In other words: ”The prestige of the physiocrats created and fostered the seminal idea that the prosperity of its rural workers was necessary to a nation and that 'agriculture' (a new word which began to appear in the French language) was something which could be improved and transformed by human progress. But physiocracy was hostile to the mercantilist emphasis on the accumulation of bullion ('capital' in more modern parlance) and laid stress instead on the value of an efficiently working agricultural economy. This encouraged the growth of agricultural associations […], and after 1755 these associations sprang up almost everywhere in France at the rate of several a year.” ; ...About the restless post-revolution times, having followed soon after, seems it also said that ”While the Revolution meant that the direction of Physiocratic colonial conservation policy was lost in France it was not lost on Mauritius.” (Grove, p. 189-190 ; 259) ; ...The basic idea and novelty on backgrounds of that (/Quesnay's) economic theory, becomes more understandable if reminded that during that (on) ancien regime, the king – who, also was some supreme power, ruled above any direct criticism from the 'regular mortal beings' - and, in principle, king also allotted for all the land(s) and of the share of wealth gained via from the cultivation of the land. So, basically, (for Quesnay) it wasn't possible (of directly) criticizing that system from ownership and labor (...that 'ever been so, ever supposed remaining so'.)

9. Like fx was happenings at islands of St. Helene (Atlantic Ocean) and Barbados (Caribbea), largely due from the sugar-cane farming (and of other reasons, less directly). ; ...For the more global knowledge (or, as some accepted 'scientific proof' at the 19th century), understanding about ecological consequences of deforestation (at tropical ranges) did not emerge to a more wider knowledge until Alexander von Humboldt's (1769-1859) writings, seems it said. (That around on earlier part from 1800s.)

10. ...Worth mention on this also that Saint-Pierre (/or likewise from the other early naturalists) would've only been aware from the species local extinction(s), as the concept about (global) extinction(s) wasn't even recognized, or understood on any manner similar than today. The species (and likewise, the races) were believed, at least in the common and prevailing belief, of being part from 'divine order'. Any species existence was therefore decided and brought for existence in the way the Almighty God had that set that on the times begins, so any complete disappearance was actually unimaginable - as that would've been against the 'natural law' acc. that view. Of course, naturalists and educated personnels (as well as common peoples), couldn't avoid from noticing the species local extinctions - At these described pelagics more easily than elsewhere, fx. Yet, argumenting from the complete loss of species, prior the (Darwin's) evolutionary theory, would have – at least, more or less – contradicted the grounding principles of the prevailed world-view. (Although Cuvier's [Georges, 1769-1832] observations from fossils also had/soon were to lead for an understanding that formerly there had existed species different from the presently extant some. All this also was subordinate for the general (limited) understanding about the Earth's past, and even the view favored by many naturalists - at the time - assumed planet's age for maximum of some tens thousands years old...from after early decades from 1800s, the scientific understanding and fossil finds accumulating, this was raised for an 'estimate' from about a million years.)

( The latest posts! - @ Mulskinner Blog @ )


----------
Powered by ScribeFire.

BogFun

”[...] Further trouble was caused by the dispatch of the copies to the Frankfurt. I sent three sheets of the book in advance. The other day I took the fourth sheet with me, the moment it was dry from the press. When I reached the ship, two miles from here, I found my copy baptized overnight by Jupiter. I needed three days to dry them...”

From Kepler's letter (1619) to Quitenus Remus,

a physician at the Court in Prague (...cite/transl. is the via  
Carola Baumgardt's book; Johannes Kepler: Life and Letters p.1951).

Menyanthes trifoliata.

...Even though I don't (mostly) believe in coincidences, was perhaps a happy coincidence for to me to drop by when this particular plant was on flowering last summer.  ...It's Bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), some from commonest natural marsh-plants. It usually grows on places where's adequate areas from standing waters (ie fx wetland-bogland, or suitable lakeside-edges). 
What a glorious blooming!

Bogbean has quite wide range all the way to the Southern Europes about, and perhaps further to Euraasia too.  (I guess, the English name originates of the looks of the seeds - when they've developed and flower petals have drop off,  them seem resemble beans, somewhat). The leaves grow separate of the flower. And - just to mention - in the past root-growths also were believed usable fx to reducing fevers...Albeit, modern knowledge seems to notice that there's not any proven/shown evidence from that (the plant's usability as remedy). In fact, there was in the pasts lot of similar beliefs from various plant. 

But how lovely a flowering ! I must have been blessed from been around just at the moment when it was of it's nicest bloom. And what lucky coincidence ! ;(G.U.J.) 

( The latest posts! - @ Mulskinner Blog @ )


----------
Powered by ScribeFire.

From diary-pages of the Part-time Vegetarian (Seq. III)

”I remember how, with pride from his originality,an Evangelical preacher, who was attacking monastic ascetism, once said to me, 'Ours is not a Christianity of fasting and privations, but of beefsteaks.'  Christianity, or virtue in general - and beefsteaks!" - Tolstoy; The First Step (Preface to the Russian transl. from the The Ethics of Diet, book by Howard Williams,1883)

”In a way all living things must be contentious. Reproductive capacities are such that any species, reproducing freely, can in short order outrun it's food supply, however plentiful.” - Asimov (Extraterrestrial civilizations, 1980)

Often the best choices are made accidentally. This ”vegetarian” diet-experiment (of mine), lasted from 15.3 until 15.9. I now consider it some of the most advantageous life-style choice I've maintained, lately or recently. 

 

This final part mostly discusses the ethical arguments favoring the vegetarian diet. Naturally it little touches the issues from and about meat production system/animal farming. But, mainly aims consist from thoughts having arised or provoked by this practical experiment (of mine) and also contemplates the various benefits of the vegetarian diet. (Some afterthoughts et similar, but I also try say smtgh on a more general level.)

 ...Along these 'part-vegerian' thoughts here's some examplary plant for pics. Many garden and wild plant are known of their great many uses as healing aids, improving health and on various other purposes throughout human history. Yet, we nowadays surprisingly little find use of them on anything like that. On the other hand there's nowadays variety from imported (so called) super-seeds, -berries, et other stuffs lots advertised and resultatively, often expensive.  - What comes for the plant - wild plants especially, but as well various of the cultivated - one should very well know their properties and looks (at medicinal uses in particular), because renownly some are very poisonic, etc. ...As for some "rule of the thumb", when using any plant one should never take very large amounts, or use some plant for too any extended periods at once. (Also, in short at any slightest uncertainty, always appears preferable consult some medicinalist or other source first.) 
The few exemplary plants here selected are generally known of no harmful side-effects, but noticeable fx some people can be allergic to pollen of flowers, or even for other substances of any particular plant(s). ...Also matters from where the usable plants/herbs are collected, for the ground can contain various toxic, or chemicals, that can end up at the plant. So, know your plants and the places where those picked from. All these - of course - are rather common, easily recognizable species growing/cultivated most anyplace from N.Europes. 
 

 (Pic left) - Mint (Menthe) - There's also wild species of mint, but garden varieties have the stronger aroma (also, there's nowadays hybrids in the natural environment). Commonly used as herb tea due it's good properties (and mentol-oils as soothing aid to coughs, ao) However, the fresh leaves should only be used before the plant blooms. - Also, by chance caterpillars from Rusty Tussock Moth (Antiqua orgyia), can be found from mint leafs...and the other butterfly-species, too.

 

(Pic below) - Calendula appears some of most often recommended garden plants for it's wide variety of uses (Plant originates perhaps from Mid East/Near Asia; Anyway, it was widely cultivated on Europe already on antique.)...The ray florets can be made for some gargling water, but I've few times infused that for tea too; Seems have some effect for preventing colds (When used seldom, not continuosly.) Fresh ray florets are also usable treating skin conditions...and, in the pasts the plant even was believed from magical powers due it's many healthy properties. (As some additional benefit, at garden it also helps repel off pests.)

Garden Marigold (Calendula Officinalis)

Since what presented on recent part at this serie, my few exceptions of the formerly described 'part-vegetarian diet', were only the following: On 15.7, ate half an oven sausage (w. the excuse from avoiding w-o-f), 2.8 ate a couple Frankfurter sausages (of no particular reason), 7.8 ate couple meatballs (Of my own cooking, and just for tastes; Must say them were pretty good), 15.8 ate a one slice of bacon, from no particular reasons, whatsoever.) ...After this half a year-experiment (of mine) I've occasionally eaten meat; Not daily, if fish included probably about every other day (Chicken mostly.) Pieces of cold cuts on bread (ham, liver sausages) perhaps more often. Since that mid-September I've also practically eaten not soya, eggs also somewhat less often.

Of the citates on begins of this, first is via pages from International Vegetarian Society (there's also other authoritative/historical personnels having favored the diets against animal eating, view their pages if wish.) The cited words (by Tolstoy) are from a piece of classic vegetarian texts, it contains the main essence of the vegetarian ethics. The abstainment from eating meat also appears abstainment from the killing; Production of the animal foods, whether or not one cares to think about that, always has involved performance of that mentioned act. (The book from which the cite, is sort of a vegarian 'bible', at least acc. some.) ...The other cite (Asimov) is here only due because it serves for me to enlargen this topic a little. I've often read a parables (from various books) about how some alien visitor, having stopped to observe our planet and human societies, would perhaps mainly recognize characteristic to us our uses of any resources at Earth for our own benefits (includes various animal species). That 'visitor' would then soon find us for an immoral race, also morally inferior, and probably just head for the better planet. (An imaginous comparison, but the question from human population numbers exceeding planets capacity well beyond it's limits, appears some amongst largest problems usually assumed overshadow/grow along with other development during the 21^st century.)

Plantago major

(To the right) - Common Plantain (Plantago major) ...it's leafs are renown as efficient first aid for small wounds. One can also prepare herb tea from those; Usable at flu's (and also coughs, throat infections, etc.) ...The Ribwort Plantain seems actually a more commonly used plant at herbal medicines. But the regular Plantain is far more common and it grows on most every place where there's damped grounds. ...The reason why the indigenous americans even used call Plantain by name the 'Englishman's foot'.

...Along his contemplations, or discussion from the vegetarian ethics, Tolstoy fx makes a visit for slaughterhouses, pays attention to how cruel is the treatment of animals and recommends fasting as the path for any virtous life. To summarize his views (very briefly) what's uniform or typical to all men – fx you and me, means the women as well, of course - is gluttony. Acc. Tolstoy immorality of the meat-eating is tied for our usual habits and attitudes about eating (...he refers at that for the rich classes behaviours of his own times and also relates the question by some part for the inequalities at society. But actually, read the referred text by yourself to have a better understanding.) He also makes a point about how hypocrite all those described behaviours appear in the light of any Christian belief. 
 

...Myself I don't fx consider fasting of any similar importance, even if one wishes think for the development of a moral feeling on humans. Feels to me - probably is more easy think so - that maintaining mostly vegetarian diet can practically take care of the same. However, I fx find quite much truth on his words about those usual hypocricies of the eating and how we often pretend being so virtuous, while in the same enjoying dinners purely because from pleasure of eating (and all that maintained at the cost of animal life). Basically, like Tolstoy, I find (the habitual meat-eating, without necessity) a practice that actually flourishes, more or less, against all the dominating principles of the basic Christian beliefs. 

 

On that sense - seems to me - the modern Christendom is in many ways quite a contradictive religion of it's moral and values; Or, probably better said, from that view-point it's among most ambigious belief-systems I know about (There's many religions that fx limit the uses of animal by some varying regulations, ao...But, with this I don't mean to say that I'd find other religious beliefs – or anything else, by the way - necessary more virtuous when compared for Christianity. Acc. my opinion, there's lot of good in the Christianity. Also, all people must have freedom from decide about their own beliefs and you can't judge any opinion basing to some single aspect like this. There's also quite many values that most credible beliefs share; Like fx abstainment from the use of violence.) However, any saying/arguing that there would be any moral grounds permitting us (the humans), as some higher or morally advanced species taking benefit of the sufferings of other species (ie animals) for to provide us some 'luxurious' dinners, is indeed just some crap of the same. There's a place for relative ethics on many aspects at life, but not on this. Naturally (probably needles say), I don't mean by this (sentence) that there wouldn't be a lots of difference if the animal is slaughtered for foods to feed many, than if the same happens just for benefit of a few. In short, it's actually quite educative little thinking that question concerning our (prevailing) human behaviours, that aspect about gluttony in particular.

(Right below -) The White Dead-Nettles (Lamium Album)
...A lot resembles the Nettles (but it's leaves don't stinge). Dead-Nettles, however, has white flowerings (those not visible in the pic, for the plant wasn't yet flowering). Tea made of flowers is recommended fx on stomach and digestive complaints. (Seems it also said help as some natural sedative and sleep aid too.)

Lamium Album

...Then, on the other hand, must say that physically I'm just not quite so convinced than on basis of these weighty ethical arguments. From this experiment of mine I noticed that one can well get along with a multi-sided diet containing fx eggs and milk and no meat (Not to make any falsifications, I also ate regularly some fish or similar.) Certainly does require somewhat more discipline sustaining w. the vegetable-oriented food - Probably the main reason why that 'First step' (on moral progress) of humanity, so finely imagined by Tolstoy, is yet quite far from realization in practice. As I also liking from keep myself in some condition (relative much jogging, biking, etc), I think it's probably fair to say that if not eating meat at all, acquiring all the necessary nutrients requires likely more carefully balanced diet. (I also noticed that it's perhaps more complicated trying maintain some 'middle-ground' diet. Probably there's also lots variation between different people, or at least somewhat, we are generally quite varying of the physical structure. ) 
This is some relationism, as you might correctly point out, but anyway I also don't consider that any healthy adult would have practical necessity for eating meats more often than perhaps on 1-2 days per week. If doing much physical work perhaps a bit more often. And I even say – contrary to my some former words – that for the older peoples as well it might appear useful to eat meat, sometimes. But I'm also not saying that anyone, if they wish and find that preferable, couldn't do just as well without.

If one then wishes compare human biology/diets for some favored by our close relates, there's actually much interesting aspects. Chimps, the most closely related from primates to us, mostly eat plant and fruit, but some meat too (...likely contains mostly of larvae and termites, but occasionally smaller animals). Gorilla, the largest living primate (-species), and one that has largest body-mass, practically eats just the plant matter (roots and leafs, acc. my understanding). Anatomically nearest human-like species of apes, Orangutan (or better said proportionally; It has average weight almost the same as humans, from males 60-90 kg) maintains a varied diet largely consisting of the fruits...and fx leaf. (Also it's mentioned to eat fx bird eggs, casually. Yet, significantly most part from what it feeds is fruit.). Then, from the species relative close to human lineage, fx Baboons - socially quite human resembling species - are most carnivorous from primates. To the contrary, Gibbons - most flexible climbers from all apes, and, also species quite close to humans - eat only fruit, leaf, flowers. What comes for the smaller existent primates/monkeys, diets probably vary lot, actually them are (probably) even more diverse. On any case, the larger part from the animal species on their 'natural' condition and environment(s) maintain rather strictly ordered diets. Fx,  there's species from monkeys (and other animals) that almost solely feed on trees leaves. And, there's some that eat (mostly) the insects and small invertebrates. Also, of all the (primates) their dietary practices likely aren't too precisely known, fx about the Chimps (social) practice of hunting smaller prey animals it wasn't known before about 1960s (For them weren't observed at their natural environments prior Jane Goodall's studies).

...Humans, quite clearly, are some from the most omnivorous of mammalians (personally I can only think of the squirrel for a good comparison...). Sometimes described been a factor having guaranteed our great success in the pasts. Yet, nothing from the above said (at this paragraph) tells much about the human dietary needs presently, for almost exclusively (we) humans live today on artificially built societies. So, I don't think vegetarism similarly argumentable on the evolutionary basis than it (clearly) is on ethical basis, but as we live on modern civilizations there isn't much real grounds for actual comparisons for our related primates either. Saying that humans (probably) wouldn't have evolved at least some biological dependency towards meat-eating would be incorrect; But, would appear equally false saying that we'd have any biological necessity to that.

...And that's basically most of it, or whatsoever I learned of my experiment. Or what level my 'moral progress' towards a vegarian diet was at this particular time from my life. I don't consider it too likely I'd completely quit eating meats in the future, but wouldn't appear unthinkable to me either; Seems at least proven that for a regular consumer (average paid, living on developed societies) maintaining a healthier and environmentally significant less stressing diet appears not any difficulty. And, there's also a point-of-view that when I go for the shops and grab a packet of minced meats, I usually tend glance at the other varieties of meat available to customers w. more 'carnivorous' diets... And I just can't avoid from now feeling some inherent dislike. 

 (Below) ;  Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) - Rowan-berries make most helthysome accompanient to diet (acc. my finding; fx them contain lot C-vitamin.) As they also are quite acidic the berries have to be precooked for juice, or marmalade (of the latter, see fx from our recipe-posts.) ...Rowan grows, possibly, more sparsely/only at higher altitudes on Mid-Europe, but at Fennoscandia it's very common and there's copses of Rowan often on mixed forests.
 

Sorbus aucuparia (Berries)

But, as I'm only talking from a relative brief period of experience, I'm only saying that people shouldn't too easily pass the ethical argument presented; Tolstoyan view for this. In particular considering how much actual waste - resources, lives, time – contains that 'modern' meat-production system. (...And, of waters - fx, seems that globally most water-consuming agricultural trade-product is - the beef.). So, my suggestion is that absolutism is not the word, but eating better – less of the meats – certainly is. ; [W-G.]

------------

( The latest posts! - @ Mulskinner Blog @ )


----------
Powered by ScribeFire.