MuleSkinner Book Recommendation #18

In Search of the Castaways¹

(By Jules Verne, p. 1867-1868)

Recommendation 8 /2009

“On the 26th of July, 1864, a magnificent yacht was steaming along the North Channel at full speed, with a strong breeze blowing from the N. E. The Union Jack was flying at the mizzen-mast, and a blue standard bearing the initials E. G., embroidered in gold, and surmounted by a ducal coronet, floated from the topgallant head of the main-mast. The name of the yacht was the DUNCAN, and the owner was Lord Glenarvan, one of the sixteen Scotch peers who sit in the Upper House, and the most distinguished member of the Royal Thames Yacht Club, so famous throughout the United Kingdom.

Lord Edward Glenarvan was on board with his young wife, Lady Helena, and one of his cousins, Major McNabbs.

The DUNCAN was newly built, and had been making a trial trip a few miles outside the Firth of Clyde. She was returning to Glasgow, and the Isle of Arran already loomed in the distance, when the sailor on watch caught sight of an enormous fish sporting in the wake of the ship. Lord Edward, who was immediately apprised of the fact, came up on the poop a few minutes after with his cousin, and asked John Mangles, the captain, what sort of an animal he thought it was.

'Well, since your Lordship asks my opinion,' said Mangles, 'I think it is a shark, and a fine large one too.'

'A shark on these shores!'

'There is nothing at all improbable in that,' returned the captain. 'This fish belongs to a species that is found in all latitudes and in all seas. It is the 'balance-fish,' or hammer-headed shark, if I am not much mistaken. But if your Lordship has no objections, and it would give the smallest pleasure to Lady Helena to see a novelty in the way of fishing, we'll soon haul up the monster and find out what it really is.'

'What do you say, McNabbs? Shall we try to catch it?' asked Lord Glenarvan.

'If you like; it's all one to me', was his cousin's cool reply.

'The more of those terrible creatures that are killed the better, at all events,' said John Mangles, 'so let's seize the chance, and it will not only give us a little diversion, but be doing a good action.' [….]”

With the above words begins novel selected as our subsequent recommendation. If that's an example of a kind, typical depiction from 19^th century human-nature relationships or just more likely a coincidental incident, imagined by writer to catch readers attention and only there because of exciting and intensified tones needed for first paragraphs is left for reader to decide. The plot then starts up as they found (from sharks belly) a message in the bottle, send by shipwrecked capt. Grant and Glenarvon with his companions then decides to make a search with the purpose of captains rescue.

Contrary to our usually maintained policy, often favoring class society literature, this book mainly belongs to the classic (youth) adventures and related stories. A little exceptional here, since normally we would avoid anything such popular (fiction).

In any case [Jules] Verne (1828-1905) would have made an unsurpassable contender for this series, sooner or later. His place among the most translated author's of the world (only second to Agatha Christie(1890-1976) gives little argument on behalf the choice, multitude of his works and the variety in their subjects more obviously does. The copy we had available had been translated from the honorable 50^th edition published in original language (Surprisingly, in addition to couple Soviet films, from 1936 and 1985(tv-serie), the 1962 Disney flick seems to be the only screening from the story).

The Castaways is basically a typical Vernerian adventure, and we could of course have chosen from plenty other good alternatives: My personal favorites include Off on a Comet (or: Hector Servadac, 1877) and Journey to the Center of the Earth, 1864 (recently refilmed, past filmography contains at least 4 movies and couple a TV-versions). From Verne's less renown earlier books there's also fx the arctic exploration journeys, Adventures of Capt. Hatteras (p 1866), consisting from two parts divided to separate books - The English at the North Pole and The desert of ice. Our selection here, Castaways has for its advocation fx those fine descriptions from the Patagonian plains (Argentinian pampa). Verne in question, famous from a phrase that originates to his childhood and goes something like 'from now on I will only travel in my imagination', it feels presumable that author hadn't actually visited the continent (Though, I've not bothered to check his biography more precisely.) Partly related to that, we also find the Castaways belonging for the series of 'life-like adventures', as in form of plot and incidents there's nothing in the novel that would demand the reader being any Vernerian believer² in need to interpret the books content and themes. Books contents may have been intentionally kept on the limits of popular readers interest, and therefore confined to foreign lands and journeys of the adventurers - also reason may be that it was probably published as some sort of follow-up to Five weeks in Balloon(1963), author's first novel/success in the fiction.

Also, already at the time of the first publication these (series of) novels were given the subtitle, Extraordinary Voyages. A bit later books in series, soon to follow, are the famous Capt. Nemo stories, namely Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869-70) and Mysterious Island (1874-75) – The latter introduces even some mutual characters with Castaways and fx ship that finally arrives to rescue castaways from that Island is Duncan, Glenarvon's yacht. All the three therefore form loosely uniform entity, though each book is individual novel. As renown and presumable, the later 'sequels' focus largely around the Nemo and his submarine(Nautilus), and have been filmed repeatedly (there's number of versions from the first mentioned and fx from Mysterious Island 7 films and at least one Tv-serie exist).

In search of the extraordinary characters. Castaways contains both the 'vernerian realism' and '-romantism' in their most typical. If thinking the plot itself, respectable Lord Glenarvon and his companions/employees launching a voyage to search a lost ship-wrecked poor fellow-man around the four corners of the world doesn't feel realistic starting point. Not intended to be such and this of course only is a feature of that romanticism, say. Still, unselfishness of those noble gentlemen in benefit of the poor orphans, capt. Grants children Robert and Mary, appears slightly romanticed and exaggerated altruism. In reality, it of course seems likely that these honorable gentlemen wouldn't probably have the time or interest from their profitable businesses to participate for such uncertain effort. But, a 19^th century was also a period of exploration and as the shipwrecks were still quite common, the survivors were sometimes searched afterwards by others. In this sense books romanticist theme may have also been felt very catching by the public and still does, probably. Only that such dramatic topics and romanticed stories nowadays are the everyday use of the soap-operas and old-fashion tv-series and so no-one in these cynical days isn't much moved from such framing for adventures (also may be a result from that exhibits from such deeds and sacrifices by rich and stardom people are so common in magazines). But we can of course imagine that the willingness of these (fictional) gentlemen to any kind of adventures could have gathered them for this kind of unselfish rescue-journey.

However, even less realistic creation appears a character searchers meet at Patagonian mountains (Andes), Thalcave. This noble savage (whose name means something like 'thunder') isn't any particularly exceptional creation either, quite the contrary. As his name would suggest, he carries all those superheroic qualities presumed; kills a condor with a master-shot from almost impossible distances, speaks little and always wisely, is muscular by outer looks and without reservations from the start faithful to death for the foreign voyagers he hardly knows. Also is childish from the mind, brave by heart. So, briefly that's an example from [James] Fenimore-Coopers(1789-1851) type of literature indians - a common and typical character in romantistic 19^th century books and largely imitated by other writers. From Cooper's characters the best renown are Uncas/Chincaghook, Hard Heart perhaps(latter from Prairie, 1827). In addition to this super-human character, Castaways narrator also elsewhere fx inpassing describes the mixed blood local inhabitants as degenerated race. That neither not much uncommon practice in various 19^th century descriptions from newly colonized lands, therefore not perhaps adequate reason to condemn Verne a racist. But, also rasistic distinctions can be picked from the many pages in Castways, usually unproblematically merged within books romantic and idolizing descriptions.

Novels boring gallery from heroes and passive females is slightly re-arranged with the introduction of character that most of them could resemble an actual historical person. That is a geographist who accidentally enters Glenarvons ship and joins their journey, Paganel – The name somewhat gives reasons to wonder if that gallery of characters after all merely is a Vernerian joke. Differing from others, Paganel is french, absent-minded scientist who in spite of his profession turns out to be as skillful explorer as his companions. It is known that Verne around the same period (1865) also worked on one of his non-fiction books, The Illustrated Geography of France and her Colonies, which gives us some interest to speculate if that Paganel might instead represent in some level Verne's own persona in the Castaways. But, not any apparent clues from such jokings or alter ego's are presented and books themes also are pretty faithful to subjects typical in the canon of romantic literature (including journeys through wilderness and untraveled continents, noble heroes and their courageous deeds as well as male companionship).

Presumably, the literary criticism have presented (and speculated) the possible sources for that peculiar character, Paganel. It is known that Verne's publisher Hetzel usually demanded more positive turns for plot when the author himself would probably had preferred darker tones instead. Hetzel fx shelved that lately famously found (in 1990s) early manuscript, named Paris in the 20th century (written before Verne's renown works) - see more from it here. So,it can be also speculated if Hetzel may have had effect on Castaways contents as the book belongs to Verne's early works, although book wouldn't have been felt as strange by the reading public of the time. Even though, there might have been at least slight guidance and restrictions concerning the themes. How much, seems less clear. Anyway, Paganel's an important character in the story and actually the novel would appear lot more conventional without (even all that implicit, typically 19th centurian racial discrimination in the book would appear more conventional if he had been removed). But, as we haven't got any knowledge from Verne's opinions or motives, we can leave the preceding for mention.

Taken for granted. The lands and places (Since we've only read until middle of the book this far, Argentinian pampa mainly) travelers pass are all described very enchantingly, giving impression from expertise and realism in detail – trees, bushes, climate, all of it makes one imagine that this could be the way these areas and environments are/were. More typically for journey stories of those times, Verne especially, the passengers also enjoy plenty of meals from nature's offerings. From the various prey they harvest in their hunts reader learns names for number of birds in Araucan (ie probably in original spoken language of the region though its name is spaniard origin and therefore abandoned in use nowadays) – But various species are refered with that 'exotic' language, like the isacus (doves likely), chingolos, bulgueros, mongitas (sparrows and/or pigeons), tinamous (partridge), teru-teru (plovers), and tangaras, annubis. From more typical birds names there are nandus, wrens and flamingos. And continuing, they also encounter some other animals, fx peccary and the Red wolves of pampa which persecute passengers in one chapter (these were apparently not real wolves exactly speaking, but perhaps numerous in the 19th century - although, since I'm not able to find any description from that particular species, might as well be additional detail by readers licenses...)

On the other hand, like we've noticed Castwaways is very conventional as novel of its kind. The nature serves as an inexhaustive reserve, wild animals are mostly either useful prey in supplement the voyagers meals, beauties of the nature or frightening beasts – therefore usually best demolished and/or stuffed for decoration. Typical attitudes in the travels on the wilderness that make an important part of many Verne's (early) books. On the other hand he likely wasn't at all too optimistic concerning the inventions and progress as has been the later usual belief. Best example in Verne's contradictory characters is found from Nemo's lunatic person, interesting from the combination of his advanced technology and frantic hate towards the (western) civilization.

But now, we can also notice that Verne's books have had enormous impact on much of the later fiction, both in form of novels and movies (not to forget the comics – fx Alan Moore's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, though we're not much familiar with the serie and not bothered to check 'em for this text). Verne's works obviously use many elements that have been in existence before him, but their modern form he may have mastered in these novels. And as result that's a regular stuff and source material nowadays in numerous tv-series, fx. This is particularly found in such repeating schemes as ship-wrecked wonderers at the lone islands or the explorations to previously unknown/existing places. A watcher may find some reminiscients of that fx in series so different (or: similar) as Lost and The Survivors. Obviously, Verne's 'romantic realism' is lot more inventive creation than most of our times later (tv-)remakes and reuses. And we've not here much discussed his many futuristic foresees and 'scifistic visions', inventive and fantastic but in some ways similarly a very 19^th centurian phenomenom by origin and form, too.

In defense of the '19th century genius'. Later times may have seen Castaways in a bit more critical light if compared to some of author's later works which are nowadays more praised. That's perhaps because those (earlier mentioned) rasistic implications and attitudes in the book. Principally this means novels stereotypical characters, but it contains also plenty other, often more direct racial prejudices; those include that very typical 19th centurian attitudes of journey makers on their voyage through those 'unmapped' and 'untouched' lands, where 'no man has ever walked before', fx. As well similarly stereotypical are the unambigous descriptions of cannibalism, intended to correspond supposed popular readers taste and imagination, probably. But, in the same way, just as typical are descriptions from the strenuous (European) pioneers and settlers prospering on the new lands and continents.

Verne's novels often contain also political aims as is often mentioned. In Castaways these also perhaps are more apparent than in some other, and reader is given sometimes surprisingly plain colonization histories from the deeds of British world imperium on various continents (but fx from the histories of French colonies - be they less crude or not - he isn't told anything). Nowadays all this gives even more contradictory impression as the brave settlers are first praised and almost in the same sentence their original country quite justifiedly blamed from the enslavement/robbery of the foreign lands (while the native people of those lands are unalternatively described as noble or primitive). Some 150 years later, all that of course appears (again) just as typically 19th centurian attitudes.

But, (to put most of this) in brief, it can be noted that in the Castaways modern, progressive world is always there implicitly present, but apart from this existing wilderness where brave civilized (men) are showing their capability to survive in the harsh conditions with their (superb) intellect and other good qualities – not very much simplifying it. As we've tried to keep reminding, novel also has some better parts. Them include fx its effective and forceful narration as well as those earlier described (Vernerian) descriptions from various places and environments. In that sense, the book feels more carefully written as some of the authors latter novels. Modern reader only notices that these descriptions often are only a context created for the contemporary public, and perhaps this may have been the reason in behind of books so striking prejudices and illusions (fx in addition to above presented they also include the view from soon expected disappearance of the aboriginal cultures as well as the unavoidable disappearance of that romantic, pristine nature). If one can tolerate those attitudes, say that 19th centurian mind and thinking lurking from between the lines, then its otherways pretty competent story. And also its better than most of the remakes, if I'd say.

(Also seems that we've again slipped in the recent recommendations for only male writers, so might as well choose for the following 3 or 4 female authors, possibly.)

Notes:

1. Or The Children of Captain Grant. Original French name is Les Enfants du Capitaine Grant. In 1876 it was republished as A Voyage Around World (fr. Voyage autour du Monde); The latter three volume book uses in naming of the adventures the geographical setting of events - South America, Australia and New Zealand.

2. In the usual meaning of the term, a Vernerian, as explained in that most recent flick Journey to the Center of the Earth(2007), means a person who believes the extraordinary and magnificient things in Verne's books are based on real, actually existing places and happenings. However, we use that term (Vernerian) with different meaning; like in the case of any other author (fx Balzaccerian, Barksian) we mean by that simply the style or narration in some way typical for the prose of the author in question. So, Vernerian especially are fx those scientific detailed depictions from places and things, technologic inventions and devices, imaginative but mainly presented as based on contemporary 19^th century knowledge from the laws of nature, mechanics, chemistry etc. By Vernerian believer we refer to adverbs more common use, as explained in above (this kind of reminds me from that there really was a strong following of such believers in the times after Verne's books original publication or following his death, but again I've not bothered to check that more precisely. Probably a phenomenom that's found within some other inventive writers too, but also it may be connected to the 19^th centurian issues we're discussing in this recommendation.)

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Species Endangered (MS-Series from) IV / 09

(The) Platypus

• Class: Mammal
• Order: Monotremata
• Latin name: Ornithorhynchus anatinus
  
• Range: Australia (East coast / Tasmania / Kangaroo Island)
• IUCN Status: LC / Cites: -

(2009 situation).

Duck-billed Platypus is a famous example from the more obscure looking creatures in nature. But it's not just a popular attraction, Platypus also has long evolutionary history reaching the earliest days of mammalians. In fact, it's perhaps the most archaic mammalian alive and sole member in its own animal genus. Platypus has been known more widely since late 19^th century, and often mentioned is also the story from how it became known to science: When receiving the bodies of the platypus specimen scientists by first look assumed it to be a typical creations by animal taxidermists of the time, and not a real species at all. Later, so goes the story, a researcher had to be sent to find out whether this odd creature also really reproduced by laying eggs. But that was the actual truth; The eggs are hatched 2 weeks before the young Platypus are born. A rare feature among mammalian but more typical for reptiles - only other mammalians in existence that lay eggs are (also the only extant monotremes) Echidna-species; Long-beaked Echidnas(Zaglossus bruijini) and Short-beaked Echidnas(Tachyglossus aculeatus) that live in New Guinea, latter also is found on Australian environments.

From its other strange features, Platypus beak is quite different from that of the birds. It's actually a soft leathery 'antenna', supplied with nerve-endings (feeding opening below the beak). Platypus-beak even senses small electrical activity which helps the animal locate the small insects/prey it needs to feed. Male specimen of them have certain spurs which contain a 'mild' venom (powerful enough to kill a dog), also less typical feature for mammalian. But they also have more typical characteristics, fx. the young specimen are fed with milk (although that practice also has certain details only found on Platypuses).

These various mentioned specialties make Platypus such exceptional case that EDGE (Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered - an organization specializing in the species 'unique' or distinct from the evolutionary perspective and/or poorly-known and therefore in danger of quietly slipping towards extinction unnoticed), includes Platypus in the Top 100 list from mammalian species most in need of protection (...and why not also check Platypus situation on their list, since EDGE's-fact sheet actually has more coherent data and information than we're presenting here.)

Platypus is basically a small carnivore. It eats little animals mostly found from its freshwater habitat; crustaceans, insects (worms and larvae, fx), also small fish and frogs includes the diet. Much of their life and habitat goes in water (for a platypus needs enough nutrients to keep body temperatures warm and so it spends about half the day in search of food) - and is well adjusted to waters like one can see from our picture catching the species in its natural element. On the ground, partly due its strange body proportions and characteristics, animal looks rather clumsy and much less well-mannered, perhaps. But, here's then a video from Arkive showing Platypus around its nest on river-bank:

Platypus collecting nesting material and maintaining burrowABC Natural History Unit, Australia

Earlier, like in the case of many animals with fur, also Platypuses was extensively hunted – especially in the 19^th century, when thar caused their disappearance from most of the earlier range in South Australia. Nowadays its found at country's eastern parts, as an aquatic species mostly on rivers and such environments. It's natural hostiles earlier included only Australian native water rats, but nowadays also some typical human introduced co-threats include also fx cats and dogs that may harm and kill Platypuses. Pollution in the rivers as well can troublesome their survival in several ways. Not least is the problem from waste chemicals, which can destroy the natural oils that keep animals dense fur waterproof. Secondly, it is also been noticed that fx things like relative acidity of water affect the species breeding success. So, Platypuses are sometimes mentioned as 'flagship species', because protecting its habitat also benefits whole eco-system where it lives. Famous Platypus captive-breeding program ('Platypussary', so called Platypus-tank invented by David Fleay) is been established since about mid last century, although only some specimen have succesfully been able to raise in captivity. Also, conservation practices nowadays include platypuses being introduced for the Kangaroo island on South Australia coast.

Interestingly as well, 'this peculiarity', originates from the earliest evolutionary divergence of mammalians, in fact its mentioned as the only (mammalian) species left alive which may date back to the pre-mammalian times, as far as the age of reptiles (means over 65.5 Million years [Ma] to the past). Also researches from recent times have showed that platypus genes, that support the egg-laying, do have some reptilian characteristics. According to that, its genome is only from 80 per cent typically mammalian features, but the rest contains elements similar to earliest forms of birds and modern reptiles as well as its own unique genetic elements (or about so, read more from it in this blog-post at EDGE). Animals 'similar' (/closely so) as the current Platypuses are only found from fossils about 100 000 years before the present, but extinct resembling monotremas found from Australia (Teinolophos / Steropodon) are known from much older times. Indeed, it's even speculated that likely its kind of species was present at the time of super-continent Gondwana, about 160 Ma past. This is based on finding of a creature comparable to Platypuses (Monotrematum sudamericanum) from the fossil record of S.America (from about 60 Ma past). It (nowadays) seems to be believed little younger than the oldest Australian (fossil) finds and is only known from few teeth-remains, but in those times a land bridge between the continents via Antartica still existed (before the Antarctica became colder like it is nowadays, and also finally cutting that connection, about as little as 33 Ma ago - see the situation of land-masses in that period from Scotes.). Anyway, in the earlier studies the living monotremas, Echidnas and Platypus are also noticed more related for each other(having diverged about 50-60 Ma), and marsupials and the 'modern' placental mammals more related by genetic structure (the former having diverged from monotremas as far as 160-180 ma past according to DNA), therefore also supporting presumption from monotremas 'branch' being the most earliest/distant (surviving) mammalians. Not surprising then, that Richard Dawkins's book (2004) Ancestor's Tale (A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of life), starting from present and extending to earliest pasts, presents Platypus on one of it's chapters - in the mentioned period(180 Ma) and as the oldest mammal 'narrator' included.

Possibly, the Platypuses (in those times soo long ago) were more common and spread for various other places around the world. In this (instance) we don't need to go that far, but can just as well perhaps imagine period somewhat closer to our times, some 40-50 million years ago (Eocene). So, let's think about Platypus swimming in that habitat, similarly as it does nowadays – and this almost gives us a strong feeling from that the evolution, how random to human observer (it may seem), is never a one-way-street. Because it really is some sort of miracle, (lucky coincidence) that this particular peculiar-looking creature still exist.

But, having not quite accurate, or approximate knowledge from the Australian ecology or animals in those early times, and even less from the vegetation, what will follow is only very applicable view. Its meant just to give us some fun (can be read like some Hollywood-kind history, say). We therefore take some likely aspects from those times and freely imagine the rest, whether or not all these species even lived in during that particular place and time (since we weren't around to witness any of this, and actually most is based on descriptions about European fossil fauna from Messel ; 'Middle Eocene Eden'):

"The climate is probably warmer and more humid, and there's lot more CO2 in atmosphere than today, released by the volcanic eruptions in the preceding geologic boundaries before this period of time. After the mentioned series-of-incidents and as consequence (during some millions of years) the tropical forests have enlarged for the most common and widespread vegetation all over the world. Humans won't be around for several (tens) millions of years, but here's many other highly diversified mammals living in these ecosystems. And, (since we're supposedly in Australia, nowadays known also from having the most archaic ecology and faunas) we can imagine our Platypus-like creature inhabiting a large pond closer to some swamp-side where also exists some giant frogs, a meter tall or so, (possibly relics from the more distant past already, but Platypus should be careful, they eat smaller mammalians too). Then we can likely except to see some large (2 meters in height) flightless birds like Diatrymas, carcass eaters, that as well can threaten our Platypus on the grounds. But, also we might perhaps find more familiar species like crocodiles not too much differing from their present forms. There's marsupials of course, also carnivorous and some resembling the existing genus of marsupial cats - like Dasyurus Albopunctatus(NT), found on New Guinea today - only this Eocene fauna includes lot more similar species and probably several of them considerably larger, too. And other animals, some such distant and strange that we can't probably here invent suitable counter-parts from the currently existing species.

Perhaps also bats, regularly with a 40-50 cm wingspan. And ants about the size of a palm. Beetles and cockroaches close to that as well, equally huge if compared to current average. And perhaps those aquatic insects that our 'Platypus' searches from the bottom of the waters are also larger in size (probably our particular species is as well). So, all these live at varying distances from Platypuses own nesting burrows, plenty of other co-species, some of them more or less predatory. Therefore this not necessary is more 'comfortable' environment for it than the one in present times ... But there it goes(!) ...smoothly diving in between the waters, reaching the lakes bottom and continuing its own particular doings, much the same way as nowadays..."(likely), ...or about so...

Pic: Beer-Morris, Encyclopedia of endangered Animals (2005).

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Plastic Fantastic Organics

: Urtekram (food) bags / A recipe(s)


Mulskinner (Hi)Tech Review 2/2009

Picture beside shows clearly without too many words our advisable Hi-Tech recommendation - Its brief and simple to use: Urtekrams plastic (organic) food bags offer a nice re-sealable solution to carry your mobile phone, camera, and other such devices safe from rain. No need to buy any of that expensive life-style-garbage-stuff-and-rubbish for the purpose.


The bag can be easily carried in the bottom of pocket keeping phone safe from knocks, water, and so on (of course it isn't usable in underwater diving, since the bag is not 100 per cent water proof, or at least I wouldn't recommend that...). But, since I often buy their organics packed this way (like rice, lens and sugar) I have no problem in changing the bag for new once the previous starts to show wear & tear. Another handy solution is carry the coins in these bags. And they also say the bags decay (ie doesn't end up adding for the plastic waste load).^{Well, more closely it actually reads that bag is polyethylene, but shouldn't cause pollutive gases when burned...}.

(W-G.)

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Also, we have a brief recipe here (organics mentioned in preceding, we are of course recommending using Urtekram's rice as well as other organics in preparation:)

Asparagus-Pepper salad &
Milanese risotto:

Salad:

Ingredients: 500 g asparagus; 2 tbl soya; ½ tbl white wine vinegar; 1 tsp sesam oil; 1 tsp sugar; 2 to 4 paprika (red or yellow), olive oil, 1 garlic glove, salt, pepper, parsley, (butter)

This simple salad is quickly made with combining peppers and asparagus on the same plate. The asparagus are first peeled and then cut for small pieces (2-3.5 cm), cook in boiling water shortly (only about 3 min), afterwards let cool and make a salad dressing from the soya, vinegar, sesam oil, sugar. Paprikas are sliced to diagonal pices and fried separately on pan with the spices (salt can be added once fried, if wish). Lastly place soaked asparagus pieces on plate and paprikas beside. People often like butter with asparagus, so I'll include some on the serving as well.

Risotto:

(probably the original Milanese risotto quite differs from this, but we're just making an easy quick meal here, not any traditional serving offered)

Ingredients: 1 dl rice, vegetables according to wish (I use mostly pepper, broccoli, fresh small onion sliced, funghi, maize), olive oil for baking, pepper, broth, vinegar/white wine, some sesame seeds ...and if wish add salsa sauce with chili or other hot spices.

Just bake the rice for half the time in water (boil, then lessen heat and let be). Meanwhile cut vegetables for thin pieces and fry in the oil shortly, with a lower heat. Then add the rice and water with broth, fry with oil (one can add some more of it), stir and lastly add spices. When finished, empty the steak-pan and fry the sesame seeds shortly. These are then poured over the risotto on plates. Serve alongside with the asparagus-pepper salad.

I've recently noticed that asparagus can be used in many forms, and especially the soup is very famous delicatessen/meal. But I'm not adding here more recipes this time.


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MuleSkinner Book Recommendations #17

The Weather Makers: The History and Future Impact of Climate Change

(By Tim Flannery)

2005. [Allen Lane], 341 pages.

[Recommendation 7/2009]

Nowadays, when the Global Warming in discussions equals the more usual societal problems like unemployment, poverty, etc, it is also acknowledged as threat for various aspects in human life(a matter of concern not just on environmental but on economical level too). The Weather Makers, our next recommendation, may have appeared in quite appropriate timing to fill some gaps in the overall conversation from that. We're not to say that exactly this book would be best or most recommendable account from the subject, since we haven't browsed any studies of quite similar to present as comparison. But it has much to say in one concise volume.

On the basis of current headliners and news it feels presumable that new research may have made some further studies and calculations that wasn't available couple years back. As well, any effort on this field cannot possibly these days take in account all the important aspects that would/will have effect and some of the things are not yet very sufficiently known. According to our own surveys slightly touching the subject, we also notice that the scope of climate science seems overwhelming. In spite of these reservations, the book still makes very thorough effort to explain the backgrounds and consequences of the Climate Change.

Gaia. From the books main content we'll just say that reader may find from it, not embellished, fx the scope of problem (increase of GHS-gases/the greenhouse effect) and developments leading for the situation. Included are such many various fields and related studies that we don't go to those more specially. In addition to discussing various negative consequences from long gone human use of fossil fuels, there's a view-points on Earths climatic history from longer time all the way to prehistoric pasts. The latter mentioned – known things from the ice-ages and inter-glacial periods climates – are probably only information that can give some clues from the expected climatic development. Much of that is of course based on scientific research and studies, so the book is rather heavy account on it and not just brief introduction to the topic. But its explained in pretty logical way mostly, so the reader need not to be any climatologic expert to get the picture(though, occasionally I noticed parts containing so much stuff that the first reading didn't quite give most complete understanding from the things said).

As Flannery is an environmentalist/palaoontologist, he also often presents interesting examples from fx what has already been found happening for the nature. Fx, there's very nicely presented brief journeys to some of those most fragile environments threatened by warming – like mountain heights and coral reefs - whose rich and exceptional plant and animal varieties have preserved in little altered state for millions of years. He describes fx the Atherton highlands in Queensland(Australia) that hold number of mammal, amphibian, reptile, and plant/tree-species that are not found anywhere else in the world. Many of them, as much other fauna and flora in the mountain heights count among first that will face the environmental damage as direct result of expected warming, possible to disappear in the close future.

The risky business. Also, there's one whole chapter from preceding past decades past development. Its as well justifiedly there, as the mains story tells from how slow was the 'awakening', political/economical will practically remaining in the Status Quo – nothing done for it (Greenhouse Effect) until recent times. And after all that the reader confronts the remainder from that earlier problem too(the ozone loss, 'danger zone' hopefully passed by and consequently almost forgotten now, so we're giving it here a lot more space and emphasis than some other issues in the book). The ozone depletion as known was happening in the Stratosphere as result from use of man-made chemical compounds, the Chlorofluorocarbons released for atmosphere. But, only because CFC-compounds were cheaper alternative to bromine the latter didn't enter in mass production and manufacture of refrigerators and other house-hold devices (developed since late 1920s, ie decades before the ozone holes over arctic/antarctic got noticed in 1970s). When the effect on Stratospheres ozone layer was discovered; “This was bad enough, but it is a matter of dumb luck that our world did not enter a far more severe environmental crisis – perhaps one leading to the collapse of societies – some thirty years ago. This could have occurred if industrial chemists had used bromine instead of chlorine.”, [Because:] “...bromine is forty-five times more effective in destroying ozone than chlorine, and so swiftly would it have torn asunder those precious ten parts per million of ozone, that Earths's sunscreen would have been destroyed even before Sherwood Rowland made his Nobel-winning discovery. Just how close the world came to such a fate can be seen in the uses to which industrial chemists had already put bromine.”(The Weather Makers, p. 217). That being so, one is left with a little uncomfortable feeling but at least has hope that an intelligent species wouldn't (by ignorance) play such risky for the second time...

It's also equally valuable in this book that it presents plain view that the 'climatic battle' is only in its early steps so far. The most effects from GHS-gases currently released will still remain in the atmosphere (and Oceans) until around 2050s. Nowadays, as there's ways to get by without causing more, better start in time. The book also takes closer look to some of the most alarming scenarios concerning the warming. There's still various likely scenarios and these also might change in time, but the problem basically isn't likely to go away. Flannery also presents (in my opinion) seemingly reasonable estimated view when mentioning that current level of warming is in best circumstances possibly stabilized around 2150s (the use of fossil fuels radically reduced, overall temperature having raised some degrees and further warming then halted). From the optimistic views, industries and production usually are found able a lot faster developing less pollutive production chains and factories when forced to do/economic factors give reason for that.

The solution(s). In addition to main discussion, in the end of the book there's variety of solutions. Of course they are not anything too complicated or new, basically one can summarizes this as the renewable cocktail instead of the more hazardous fossilous one. The main part (of the book) explains why there's haste in the transition to use less pollutive energies, but on the basis of current knowledge seems also likely that in the future much of those would be 'extracted' from more various sources than today (depending on the most suitable for different countries/regions). For one's own energy usage there's as well plenty of 'recipes'; fx change for hybrid cars; use of renewable electricity - if not available change the company/provider, etc. Equally reasonable is of course the notion that more the usage of green electricity, solar panels, etc, the cheaper these will in time be in time. As well it's of course easy to find similarly recommendable practices/changes in one's own behaviour, fx. biking makes a good alternative to walking (and so on).

Since the climatic science (there's also included most useful list from sources of falsified information, incl. fx the foregone Global Climate Coalition) is generally rather recently born field of research, the book basically gives lot information from topics that are not too commonly mentioned in other contexts. Some of it may feel a bit heavy in places, but nevertheless even without much earlier understanding beforehand the reader can find the main points presented clearly enough. Of course, we've here but briefly refered to some of the things discussed. Possibly much of that may have already been reshaped / slightly renewed with more recent research since books publication, but basically the book tells the simple fact that nature never reacts quite the way humans easily would hope it to. Flannery may have been most concerned on the effects for his own home country (Australia), but the things are presented on global level, mainly.



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Species Endangered (MS-Blog Series from) - III / 09

Bermuda Petrel

• Class: Avia
• Order: Procellariiformes
• Latin name: Pterodroma cahow
• Range: Bermudan Islands
  

• IUCN Status : EN (Endangered) /
• CITES: Not listed (Marine species usually aren't)
• (above a 2008 situation)
  

For centuries supposed an extinct species, Bermuda Petrel (Pterodroma cahow) in some ways resembles one of the frog species (Mallorcan Midwife toad) mentioned in our previous post. Bermuda Petrel was also quite recently found having survived to our times, and has been protected since. The recovery of bird(s) has also been supported with conservation efforts. The story of the Bermuda Petrel is rather famous, but because we're not too familiar with it and it's general popular renown goes back some decades, it's included as next in the series.

Endemic to Bermudan Islands solely, Bermuda P. is counted in gadfly petrels. The upper main order, Procellariiformes contains basically petrels, sometimes also Albatrosses (Diomedeidae) are included within. Other co-families (in that taxonomy) are the Storm Petrels (Hydrobatidae), and Diving-petrels (Pelanoides). The remaining family Procellariids contains the gadfly petrels in addition to some other sub-groups (or about so, I would guess these aren't always that clear/permanent and sometimes the species classifications are changed).

Petrels feed at open sea and are pelagic marine birds (mostly?). In common image petrels have been called the storm birds, due that they are excellent fliers and seem to be almost 'safe at home' in the bad weather. Typical to the petrels is also that they breed slowly, usually only one descendant in successful season, the incubation taking generally long period: In case of Bermuda Petrel for about over 50 days, but for Albatrosses that have the longest incubation time of any birds, it may be from 70 to 80 days. The fledglings leave the nest after around 13-14 weeks age, the young petrels usually returning to the breeding islands when having reached mature age, in about 4 to 5 years. Petrels only spend part of the year in the nests, their breeding period, which also includes the period of parental watch for newborn chicks. Most part of the year they spend on open seas in search of food, practically being dependable on sea fish.

In spite of some successes in recent decades, species population growth for a more stable level has taken about half the century. And basically it's listed as EN because the population has been noticed at slow but stable increase; any sudden change for the worse could immediately turn that to downwards trend, the species being classified critically endangered, CR. Byrds numbers were (2005) just around the 250, often used as some number (/level of criteria) in those classifications. On the other hand, further continued population growth would possibly mean downlisting in the IUCN classification. [But, as we've learned in during these discussions, population numbers usually tell but half the truth, animal populations concerned and even abundant species can quickly become endangered if the habitat is destroyed, or species other ways largely hunted, harmed, etc)]


Whatever one thinks the fitting classification in Petrels case, that's way down from the estimates of the byrds frequency prior human arrival/affect (no reason to suspect those numbers, though the amount is probably difficult to ensure with certainty). It was once 'superabundant', supposedly had a population of about 500 000 individual specimen. Bermuda Petrel becoming endangered and supposed as extinct, like was the belief for over 300 years, has its origins in the times of explorers/travelers arriving its home island. Not any way unusual a story, like we can notice from following paragraphs. The rediscovery is more atypical one and soon became a symbol for hope in concerning the threatened bird species in general and the marine birds in particular. But for the record it can also be mentioned that at least one other species of Petrels was supposed to be extinct for a long time, about 150 years, until in 2003 it was also rediscovered.


There's also lot variation in amounts of populations in between different recognized (Petrel) bird species. Some belong to most numerous from sea birds like Wilson's Storm Petrel (Oceanites Oceanicus) and Short-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris), which both are counted in numbers over tens of millions – but some are so rare that even their nesting sites are still nowadays not known. Fx, Fiji Petrel is mentioned having been seen for only handful of times after it was identified as particular species. Only in Bermuda's petrel's own Pterodroma genus there's number of (pelagic) species which are known to be severely threatened, fx: Chatham Islands petrel (P. axillaris, CR) ; Galápagos petrel (P. phaeopygia, CR) ; Jamaica petrel (P. Caribbaea, CR - possibly extinct) ; Black-capped petrel (P. hasitata, EN) ; Barau's petrel (P. baraui, EN) ; Trindade Petrel (P. arminjoniana, VU) ; Atlantic petrel (P. incerta, VU) ; Murphy's petrel (P. ultima, NT)². Since for the Procellariidaes in addition to gadfly petrels also are counted the shearwater-, fulmarine petrels and prions families, these likely contain several more threatened species, though we don't go listing those more especially here.


But, we can now here re-read (part) of the Bermuda P. story to get the better picture; the human caused impact on birds survival began when early Spanish sea-farers in 16^th century began leaving hogs grazing in wild on island and that way using the place as living food store for passing ships (superstitious from the nocturnal voices of birds on island, they were not building any permanent settlements on islands). A bit later, the actual disappearance of of the species would nevertheless have happened in rather brief period of time, in only about 10 to 15 years as can be read from the following citation:

Lost and found. Bermuda remained uninhabited until 1609, when an English expedition was shipwrecked there. At the time the islands were teemed with seabirds, including vast numbers of Bermuda petrels. Soon, however, settlers arrived in force, bringing with them pigs, rats, and other animals that raided the petrels' nesting burrows. To make matters worse, the settlers themselves also caught and ate huge numbers of the birds, until by 1621 the species was thought to be extinct.

No specimen were recorded for more than 300 years, but then, miraculously, the bird turned up again. The first clue of existence came in 1906, when a dead petrel was found an Castle Island, one of the smallest in Bermuda. At first it was taken to be a previously unknown capped petrel from the Caribbean region, but then in 1916 another individual turned up – and it seemed to fit the 17^th century descriptions of the missing species. The clinching record came in 1931, when a bird that hit St. David's lighthouse was retrieved and identified as Bermuda Petrel. Another definite record was of an individual that struck a telephone pole in St. George, at the northeastern end of the main island.

The puzzle of where these birds came from remained, since none could be found nesting on any of the inhabited islands. In 1951 a search turned up 18 pairs of the petrels on rocky islets in Castle Harbor, near St. George. The total area of these islets was only 2.4 acres (1 ha). Instead of nesting in burrows as they had done in the 17^th century, the petrels were now using natural crevices created by water erosion of the soft limestone rock, since there was little soil on the islets.” ¹

Often marine and other birds of islands have gotten endangered similar way as the Bermuda petrels described above. That may not always have happened such quickly, but following the arrival of human settlement on their living islands. The popularly known examples from the extinct birds are probably Dodo and Moa, that also disappeared directly of human impact (overhunting) and/or indirectly as result from human brought co-threats. In the various islands on seas, that usually have served as nesting sites for large number of marine birds, there's examples more similar to Bermuda P. case.


A typical example, St. Helena's Island in South Atlantic (also renown as the place where Napoleon was finally exiled and later died at early 19^th century), is a more striking one, since from the island in addition to two native sea-water species(St. Helena's Small and Large petrel - Bulweria bifax and Pterodroma rupiram), also main part from the unique terrestrial endemic byrd species disappeared. And, again (largely) because of the above mentioned various threats humans brought along with themselves, the new alien species - cats, rats and pigs. In the pelagic islands where species originally lack such native predators, introduced pets and domestic animals were often been found a more severe threat to native bird species than any other human caused things.


Sometimes the foreign species have been brought to islands unintentionally or for the uses of farming as pest killers. Concerning the pelagic byrds fx, there's Brown tree snake – apparently by accident brought to Guam (at Pacific Ocean) where it killed most from islands native bird population. Another comparable example from human brought invasive species - if not expecially for birds - is Cane Toad (Bufo Marinus) that mainly in the 1930s was introduced for various Pacific and Caribbean islands as elsewhere too (with the intention to dispose the beetles in sugar cane farms.) Toad has certain toxins and so in addition to appearing mainly a failure in its original purpose as biological control agent, the Cane Toads were also often found a threat for several native species (in general, the toad more usually turned out to be a pest itself affecting various native animals populations in host countries - For further information about the past history, consequences and failures of that 'Great Cane Toad pest killer Experiment' , one can read this informative article from Cane toads in Australia (One can check the more recent information/news on Cane toads, too.) It is estimated that world-wide large part (80 per cent) from endangered species suffer from human introduced (intentionally or non-intentionally) competitors or predators. Some may date back in the prehistoric times, some are newer cases.


Also, fx nowadays in the Hawaii native birds are often mentioned among the most endangered; from the islands current species over 40 per cent is by origin not native, but brought by humans. From the land birds the introduced species comprise 69 per cent from the total. Hawaii is to some point an exceptional case since the islands environments, rich with plant and vegetation, as well as the animals had remained in isolation for millions of years. More recently human invasion, (supposedly) first the Polynesians and later in the 19th century European settlers arriving for the Hawaii archipelago both caused new invasive species to spread for the islands original environments (and also some time closer to our days, more intensive deforestation and farming). As result many from native birds are found to habitat only in the higher elevations, likely the mountain-sides. (Nowadays Climate Change is also expected to reduce those safe environments.)

Several albatross species like the Black-footed Albatross (Phoebastria nigripes) that breeds on some North-Pacific islands including Hawaii, have also recently become endangered much because of long-lining fishery (in during 1978-1991, especially when there probably wasn't any level of regulations for that). Having somewhat strengthened in their numbers during the 2oth century (earlier decline's is often attributed to common human practise as well, feather and egg collecting in 1800's and early 1900's), several albatross and petrel species are found still threatened by long-lining, although fisheries should utilize techniques that cause less seabird by-catch. As well, there's nowadays nets more 'safer' to birds, though their use is of course been found less easy to guarantee/control. In 1991 was established a protected species zone where no long-line fishing is allowed (for about 50 nautical miles to the North-western oceans from Hawaii). But, the fisheries by-catch nevertheless still causes unnecessary deaths for many albatross and petrel specimen yearly, and plenty of species are affected.


One of course can remark that recently also more common (bird) species worldwide were observed in decline (though several from those are also capable to recover more quickly, perhaps.). But returning to petrels, amongst marine birds, they are with albatrosses most severely threatened taxa worldwide, though only one species is mentioned confirmed to have gone extinct since the 17th century - That is Guadalupe Storm-Petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla), which disappeared in the early 20^th century, mostly because of non-native predators on its home island (cats). Various other species are vulnerable since their populations have diminished and/or have not been seen for some time.


Since Bermuda petrels have been protected from 1950s their amount has been slowly in raise with the help of conservationist effort. These have included protection from some competive tropical bird species as well as prevention of rats to reach the birds nesting sites. Other threats for species include fx the long-line fishing, since it not only kills large number birds still, but also effectively weakens the catch of fishes available for birds. Additionally, there's sea-waste (flotsam), general marine pollution including oil spills, and the other pollutants like DDT, noticed a reason for the failure of bird eggs to hatch. More recently, some serious flooding as result of sea level raise and a hurricane few years back caused destruction to their burrows (nest sites), so the other potential suitable environments in close islands for breeding sites have been seeked. But, their population is been now found increasing, now at about 25 per cent breeding success (from 5 per cent in 1950s).



From the variability of particular birds mentioned in this post, we can notice that it of course not mainly tells from the vast number of different (marine) bird species, but the various humans caused threats which have largely increased the number of endangered. Of course, the conservation efforts having success also tells that many species are capable to recover quickly if aided. But, like the example here, it may also take far longer period of time in cases where species is slowly reproducing and also natively limited to/breeds only in certain geographic area (like islands). In this particular case, (if wish) to determine for how long depends from perspective taken; recent limited population growth may be seen as result from last 50-60 years various conservation efforts, but as the actual disappearance only took some decades the recovery can also be seen having been some 300-400 years process.

Notes:
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1. Beer-Morris, 2005, The encyclopedia of Endangered Animals.[Bermuda Petrel]

2. (These related endangered) species are listed in the book (see the note 1 above).



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Species Endangered (MS-Blog Series from) - II / 09

Yellow-Bellied Toad

• Class: Amphibian
• Order: Anura
• Latin name: Bombina Variegata
• Range: From Central-/Eastern Europe to Mediterranean region
• IUCN Status: LC (Least Concern) / Cites: Not listed
  

(Above classifications are a 2008 situation).

Yellow-bellied Toad (Bombina variegata) is quite widespread, small-sized toad (a distinction between toad and frog is a minor but interesting one: in general toads are more accustomed to land-life, they fx usually have shorter legs and drier skin. The differences are not significant and as a term frog practically includes also toads. Therefore, not a clear taxonomic separation exists/is reasonable to make) Toads like frogs also habitat, at least for their breeding behavior, small ponds and lakes, as well as other watery places.

Yellow-bellied Toads are found mostly in foothills and mountain-sides. It can be spotted from coniferous and mixed forests, grasslands, meadows, etc, in the higher altitudes, from deciduous forests in low elevations. The diet includes most typically small terrestrial insects (but also fx small spiders, crustaceans and various aquatic insects). It hunts them by night. The bombinatoridae family are also often mentioned noticeable from their voices, which remind the sound of small clocks clacking merely than more typical frog croaks - one who has heard such 'concerto' on the late walk fx, may perhaps understand/recognize the species especial voices from this description. These toads are easily confused with their 'sister-species' Fire-Bellied Toads (Bombina bombina). Outer distinction in between species is only possible to make of small details, main one being the color in their belly-side (which is believed to serve as warning for the predators as a threatened toad may turn around upwards to show its colorful belly as a sign of being toxic/poisonous). The two parallel (sub-)species also hybridize in many their contact areas.

In contrast to various other amphibian species, Yellow-Bellied Toad is not considered particularly demanding by habitat and even tolerates some wetlands highly polluted by humans. It can also be found on urban forest parks. Since frogs in general are freshwater dependable species, their existence in the water sources often tells from the good condition of waters. Actually, as urbanization and human settlements in Europe are often dense, frogs are in places also dependable from artificial aquatic habitat. Sometimes they are found using for their breeding small wells close to urban housings (but in many places over their range, the replacement of those traditional human water use sources by newer methods is also noticed as one reason in the amphibian disappearance). Both species (-variegata/-bombina) in general are relatively common, the one in question here having a range from Mediterranean Europe to the central and eastern parts of the continent. But, the ongoing population trend in both cases is in decline.

In the strictest sense of endangerment it perhaps would not qualify for this series (from endangered species), as it is only counted LC in the IUCN list and not disappearing so fast as would mean the classification of seriously threatened. But, fx subspecies Apennine Yellow-bellied Toad (Bombina pachypus), found only in Italy is listed as endangered(EN) because of its fast decline. Further, including Bombina variegata here becomes more justified if examining the situation of amphibians in whole. Findings of the European Red List of Amphibians¹ give some hint about the scope of overall decline: in addition to about 15 or more severely endangered - including critically endangered Karpathos Frog(Pelophylax cerigensis) and Montseny Brook Newt(Caloritron arnoldi) - more than half (59 per cent) of the (European) amphibian species populations were in decline and only 36 per cent found in stable state. Main significant threats found (for the amphibians) are; 1^st -Habitat loss (mankind caused loss of natural habitat and suitable living area), 2^nd -Pollution (including causes related to climate change), 3^rd -Invasive alien species (and some hazardous diseases that affect frogs particularly, such as Chytridiomycosis) (p. 11-13 in that IUCN survey mentioned – see the note before). Looks like hard times for frogs, since their general disappearance and declining populations has already been seen happening for some decades, at least.

The disease mentioned in above chapter, chytridiomycosis is relatively recent mysterious killer of amphibian species, and still remains somewhat so. It's origins are according to some studies traceable to certain African frog-species, that was widely transported around the world and therefore seems as most potential vector in diseases spread to several continents. Though, chytridiomycosis has also been shown having existed in amphibian populations some decades, possibly latent. It has supposedly only become virulent in the more recent times. The disease most dramatically affects to amphibian decline in cooler conditions/zones (under 28 C, it is said), but it's also shown having had impact (as co-effect of Climate Change) in the regional amphibian extinctions seen since 1980s. The warming and more unstable/ambient climate may significantly hasten the spread of chytridiomycosis, noticed afterwards in some cases where dramatic population decline had happened.
More conventional and typical reasons for amphibian decline are human caused habitat destruction and urbanization; major ones also include the drying of wet-lands, road construction, water pollution. In addition to those comes the increased land cultivation and agriculturalism, but there's yet several other factors and in general decline is mostly seen a result from various reasons (as often summarised in final conclusive sentences). But, one also finds, among the most significant reasons there is also the overall increase of toxins and use of chemical contaminants(pesticides and some fertilizers, – particularly concerning the amphibians has been the Atrazine, herbicide used about since 1950s, although its more recently been banned in European Union) ; Another, probably more recent, but also mentioned as threat is the raises in UV-B Radiation ; And there's yet more conventional/regular reasons, like the animals being collected for food, pets, etc.

From amount of about over 6300 amphibians species only 85 are endemic to Europe (most numerously there habitating the moisture Mediterranean region where expected drying will cause the largest changes). If enlarging the scope to get the correct picture, that worldwide decline, precisely said, threatens about 30 per cent of their populations - And therefore more seriously than any other animal (order); birds or mammals fx. However, no single most reason is possible to raise aforth as most responsible for that.

But, there's of course plenty of reasons to say (much of) the above mentioned is related to global warming. Some frog populations, restricted to limited range or other ways particularly vulnerable, have in cases been found completely disappeared/extinct in their area. That so, even when inhabitating the protected, conservation habitat - Like that most renown 'iconic Climate Change victim'; the Golden Toad (Bufo periglenes). But, same climatic changes in the region did as well simultaneously cause the disappearance of several other frog populations. Similar losses elsewhere in the world (fx US and Australia) have also been possible to connect in the impacts of general drying. A seemingly small ecologic changes can have a big effects, sometimes; fx according to one research² a slight reduction in the water amount in shallow ponds (from about 50 cm deep to only 20 cm deep) increased the dead-rate from 12 to 80 per cent in the amphibian tadpoles (downright reason for deaths was found from another typical amphibian disease, Saprolgenia ferax³).

For the positive side, most of the amphibians and frogs reproduce by laying multitude of eggs, and can therefore often be successfully increased in captivity. In nature most eggs and/or tadpoles die until mature age, but in the artificial human supervised conditions their great potential for reproductivity can be improved remarkably. Therefore, captive-breeding has sometimes saved threatened species from total extinction and can be used efficiently to return them for the natural wild habitat. A popular example of such, Mallorcan Midwife Toad (Alytes Muletensis) (VU) - now often mentioned as example of living fossil, because it was at first only known from the fossil remains - is a species that was supposed have gone extinct in earlier times, mostly because the early human settlement (in roman times, 2000 years ago) also introduced predators like viper snakes and competitive frogs to the island. Luckily, remains of the small population were found at remote mountains around 1980s. Since that, the toads were increased in protection, new populations from them subsequently later established for suitable areas where mentioned invasive alien species don't reach (in the mountain region of island). Also, it is counted as one of the two European endemic amphibian species that still were on the raise in population numbers, as mentioned in the earlier refered European Red List of Amphibians. (Also, there's pics/some more about the species fx at Arkive.)

Thinking optimistically, resembling that aforementioned newly discovered case, there is still also even new species found, especially in the more biodiversity rich areas like rainforests. But these are of course merely singular examples. Also, as supportive program to improve the amphibian survival, captive-breeding often is mainly a supplementary/last chance protection (in addition to other actions that would be needed in the first place.) In most cases it is always also somewhat risky, fx because there's a possibility from spread of diseases for the wild populations.

So, on the basis discussed things, our example here Bombina Variegata (Yellow-bellied Toad) fits more than adequately to present here in our series from endangered species. Even though it is a common species and not in immediate danger of extinction, seems quite plausible that future seems to hold plenty of things that could cause it becoming so. Wikipedian heading from the decline in the class/taxa also points out a fact not yet mentioned: due that amphibians have two-part life-stages(ie in brief are generally dependable from both aquatic and terrestrial conditions in during life-cycles), they are more vulnerable to human caused changes for world's biodiversity than some other animals. Whatever the most potential reason, globally alarming thing is the extinction rate, according to conservative estimates about 200 times the past rate(if compared to overall amphibians background extinctions from the past).

But, since we don't want end this post in too depressive comments, we'll finally here also remind ourselves that the amphibians have a long evolutionary history, far longer than man. And, as mentioned before, their reproductivity potential gives yet some reasons to optimism also. As well, there's also much not yet known from them; fx frogs are mentioned returning to the same places(ponds, fx) for breeding each year, which is some kind of mystery too, exact reasons unknown, if not for the frogs themselves - Only that one hopes those ponds to remain there in the future still...

Notes:

1. Temple, H.J. And Cox, N.A. 2009, European Red List of Amphibians. Luxembourg. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. – The report available from: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/?3204/Europes-amphibians-and-reptiles-under-threat--- → under downloads/European Red List of Amphibians (pdf). (A studies carried by IUCN for European Commission)

2. Pounds, A.J. , 2001. Climate Change and Amphibian Declines. Nature 410; 639-40. [Cited via: Flannery, Tim, 2005. The Weather Makers. The history and Future Impact of Climate Change.]

3. Or, the diseases name may be a synomous to Chytrodimycosis(?), since its also fungus-related and Flannery mentions it as one cause in the annihilation of frog species around the world. Whatever the case, a quick search from Wikipedia didn't give us any direct answer/clarification to that important terminological question...Possibly, the term is such a new one, that it's not in any common use yet(?)... (The free Dictionary by Farlex returns us a definition from Saprolegnia Ferax (not from Saprolgenia Ferax): "A fungus that attacks living fish and tadpoles and spawn causing white fungus disease: a coating of white hyphae on especially peripheral parts (as fins)" (though, as the results from the study mentioned seem to date as far as 2001, and probably more recent research has surfaced since then, but those search results, especially the terms absence of directories and definitions, seem just...unlikely. [?])

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